Impact of lipid emulsions in parenteral nutrition on platelets: a literature review.

Lipid emulsions are essential components of parenteral nutrition solutions that provide energy and essential fatty acids. The complexity of the formulations of lipid emulsions may lead to adverse outcomes such as platelet reactivity and changes in platelet aggregation and related coagulation. Platelets are responsible for haemostasis; they activate and demonstrate morphological changes upon extracellular factors to maintain blood fluidity and vascular integrity. Although parenteral nutrition lipid emulsions are generally found safe with regard to modulation of platelet activity, studies are still accumulating. Thus, this review aims to investigate platelet-related changes by parenteral nutrition lipid emulsions in human studies. Studies have pointed out patients at risk of bleeding and increased platelet aggregation responses due to the administration of lipid emulsions. Lipid emulsions may further benefit patients at high risk of thrombosis due to anti-thrombotic effects and should be cautiously used in patients with thrombocytopenia. The reported platelet-related changes might be associated with the fatty acid change in the plasma membranes of platelets following changes in platelet synthesis and plasma levels of eicosanoids. In conclusion, studies investigating platelets and parenteral nutrition should be supported to minimize the adverse effects and to benefit from the potential protective effects of parenteral nutrition lipid emulsions.

Comparison of two formulations of intravenous lipid emulsions in pediatric intestinal failure.

PURPOSE: The effect of different types of lipid emulsion may guide therapy of patients with intestinal failure (IF) to limit morbidity such as intestinal failure-associated liver disease (IFALD). METHODS: A retrospective chart review of pediatric patients with IF who received soybean oil lipid emulsion (SL) or mixed oil lipid emulsion (ML) was performed. Data over 1 year were collected. RESULTS: Forty-five patients received SL and 34 received ML. There were no differences in the incidence (82 versus 74%, P = 0.35) or resolution (86 versus 92%, P = 0.5) of IFALD between the cohorts. The median dose of ML was higher compared to SL (2 versus 1 g/kg/day, P < 0.001). If resolved, IFALD resolved rapidly in the ML cohort compared to the SL cohort (67 versus 37 days, P = 0.01). Weight gain was higher in the ML compared to the SL cohort at resolution of IFALD or 1 year from diagnosis of IF (P = 0.009). CONCLUSION: The administration of ML did not alter the incidence or resolution of IFALD compared to SL in pediatric IF. There was rapid resolution of IFALD and enhanced weight gain in the ML cohort compared to SL in pediatric IF.

Comparing Aluminum Concentrations in Adult and Pediatric Parenteral Nutrition Solutions: Multichamber-Bag versus Compounded Parenteral Nutrition.

Aluminum contamination in parenteral nutrition (PN) solutions can lead to neurotoxicity, reduced bone mass, and liver toxicity, especially in pediatric patients. Ingredients commonly used in PN compounding, such as vitamins, trace elements, calcium, and phosphate salts, contain significant amounts of aluminum. This study aimed to compare aluminum concentrations in multichamber-bag (MCB) and compounded PN for adults and pediatrics. A prospective study assessed aluminum concentrations in various types of MCB and compared them with compounded PN formulations with similar compositions. The types of MCB included Lipoflex® (without electrolytes), Omegaflex®, Finomel®, Smofkabiven® (with and without electrolytes), Olimel®, Clinimix®, and Numeta®. Overall, 80 aluminum determinations were included: 36 for MCBs and 44 for compounded PN. MCBs showed significantly lower aluminum concentrations than compounded PN: 11.37 (SD 6.16) vs. 21.45 (8.08) µg/L, respectively. Similar results were observed for adult (n = 40) and pediatric (n = 40) PN formulations (12.97 (7.74) vs. 20.78 (10.28) µg/L, and 9.38 (2.23) vs. 22.01 (5.82) µg/L, respectively). Significant differences were also found between MCBs depending on the manufacturing company. These findings suggest that MCBs PN offer a safer option for reducing aluminum contamination in PN. Harmonizing regulations concerning aluminum concentrations in PN solutions could help mitigate differences between PN formulations.

Parenteral n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation improves postoperative recovery for patients with Crohn's disease after bowel resection: a randomized, unblinded controlled clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: The postoperative inflammatory response is associated with postoperative recovery in surgery. n-3 (ω-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids have been reported to lower inflammation. The postoperative role of parenteral n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation on outcomes in Crohn's disease after bowel resection is unclear. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to investigate the effects of postoperative parenteral n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation in Crohn's disease. METHODS: A prospective randomized, unblinded controlled clinical trial was conducted for patients with Crohn's disease who underwent bowel resection between May 2019 and February 2022. Postoperative complications, complete blood count, serum biochemical values, and cytokine concentrations were compared in patients with and without parenteral n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for 5 d postoperatively. RESULTS: There were 268 patients randomly assigned in the analysis, with 134 in the control group (a mix of long-chain and medium-chain fats at 1.0 g/kg/d) and 134 in the treatment group (long-chain, medium-chain, and n-3 polyunsaturated fats at 1.2 g/kg/d). Twenty-six did not complete the allocated treatment, and 8 patients were lost to follow-up. The intention-to-treat analysis and the per-protocol analysis showed that there were a significant reduction in overall complication rates (22.4% compared with 49.3%; P < 0.001 and 21.8% compared with 38.2%; P = 0.006) and postoperative stay (8.8 ± 4.5 d compared with 11.2 ± 6.8 d; P = 0.001 and 8.7 ± 4.0 d compared with 11.5 ± 7.3 d; P < 0.001) in patients with parenteral n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation compared with patients in the control group. In the secondary outcomes, the mean ± standard deviation of interleukin (IL)-6 (17.11 ± 2.14 pg/mL compared with 30.50 ± 5.14 pg/mL; P = 0.014), IL-1ß (2.01 ± 0.05 pg/mL compared with 2.24 ± 0.09 pg/mL; P = 0.019), tumor necrosis factor-α (2.09 ± 0.06 pg/mL compared with 2.29 ± 0.06 pg/mL; P = 0.029), and C-reactive protein concentrations (51.3 ± 4.2 mg/L compared with 64.4 ± 5.3 mg/L; P = 0.050) on postoperative day 5 in the treatment group were much lower than those in the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Parenteral n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation promotes postoperative recovery in patients with Crohn's disease following bowel resection, with fewer complications and reduced inflammatory cytokines. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03901937 at https://classic. CLINICALTRIALS: gov/ct2/show/NCT03901937?term=NCT03901937&cond=Crohn+Disease&draw=2&rank=1.

Can supplementation of tryptophan in parenteral nutrition increase melatonin and alleviate inflammatory response?

OBJECTIVE: Endogenous melatonin is produced from tryptophan which is an essential amino acid. Besides its role in the regulation of sleep patterns, melatonin has anti-inflammatory effects. In this case-control study, we aimed to compare tryptophan and melatonin levels and their relationship with the inflammatory response, specifically serum interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and c-reactive protein levels following major abdominal surgery in patients with food restriction and who receive parenteral nutritional therapy. METHODS: We enrolled 40 patients between the ages of 18 and 65 years in the study. We collected blood and urine samples 48 h before the operation and on postoperative days 1, 3, and 5. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: The tryptophan levels in the experimental group were higher than in the control group but failed to reach any statistical difference. Melatonin levels were increased in both groups following the surgery compared with preoperative levels. The increase in the experimental group was statistically different 3 days after the surgery. The difference in the level of interleukin-1 between the control and the experimental groups was greatest on postoperative day 3. On postoperative day 3, the interleukin-6 level in the treatment group was slightly higher than in the control group. We did not find any difference in the levels of c-reactive protein between the groups. As a result, the levels of tryptophan and melatonin were increased in the parenteral nutrition group, irrespective of the postoperative inflammatory response.

Nutritional Support for Moderate-to-Late-Preterm Infants - A Randomized Trial.

BACKGROUND: Most moderate-to-late-preterm infants need nutritional support until they are feeding exclusively on their mother's breast milk. Evidence to guide nutrition strategies for these infants is lacking. METHODS: We conducted a multicenter, factorial, randomized trial involving infants born at 32 weeks 0 days' to 35 weeks 6 days' gestation who had intravenous access and whose mothers intended to breast-feed. Each infant was assigned to three interventions or their comparators: intravenous amino acid solution (parenteral nutrition) or dextrose solution until full feeding with milk was established; milk supplement given when maternal milk was insufficient or mother's breast milk exclusively with no supplementation; and taste and smell exposure before gastric-tube feeding or no taste and smell exposure. The primary outcome for the parenteral nutrition and the milk supplement interventions was the body-fat percentage at 4 months of corrected gestational age, and the primary outcome for the taste and smell intervention was the time to full enteral feeding (150 ml per kilogram of body weight per day or exclusive breast-feeding). RESULTS: A total of 532 infants (291 boys [55%]) were included in the trial. The mean (±SD) body-fat percentage at 4 months was similar among the infants who received parenteral nutrition and those who received dextrose solution (26.0±5.4% vs. 26.2±5.2%; adjusted mean difference, -0.20; 95% confidence interval [CI], -1.32 to 0.92; P = 0.72) and among the infants who received milk supplement and those who received mother's breast milk exclusively (26.3±5.3% vs. 25.8±5.4%; adjusted mean difference, 0.65; 95% CI, -0.45 to 1.74; P = 0.25). The time to full enteral feeding was similar among the infants who were exposed to taste and smell and those who were not (5.8±1.5 vs. 5.7±1.9 days; P = 0.59). Secondary outcomes were similar across interventions. Serious adverse events occurred in one infant. CONCLUSIONS: This trial of routine nutrition interventions to support moderate-to-late-preterm infants until full nutrition with mother's breast milk was possible did not show any effects on the time to full enteral feeding or on body composition at 4 months of corrected gestational age. (Funded by the Health Research Council of New Zealand and others; DIAMOND Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry number, ACTRN12616001199404.).

From intestinal failure to transplantation: Review on the current need for transplant indications under multidisciplinary transplant programs worldwide.

INTRODUCTION: Intestinal failure, defined as the loss of gastrointestinal function to the point where nutrition cannot be maintained by enteral intake alone, presents numerous challenges in children, not least the timing of consideration of intestine transplantation. OBJECTIVES: To describe the evolution of care of infants and children with intestinal failure including parenteral nutrition, intestine transplantation, and contemporary intestinal failure care. METHODS: The review is based on the authors' experience supported by an in-depth review of the published literature. RESULTS: The history of parenteral nutrition, including out-patient (home) administration, and intestine transplantation are reviewed along with the complications of intestinal failure that may become indications for consideration of intestine transplantation. Current management strategies for children with intestinal failure are discussed along with changes in need for intestine transplantation, recognizing the difficulty in generalizing recommendations due to the high level of heterogeneity of intestinal pathology and residual bowel anatomy and function. DISCUSSION: Advances in the medical and surgical care of children with intestinal failure have resulted in improved transplant-free survival and a significant fall in demand for transplantation. Despite these improvements a number of children continue to fail rehabilitative care and require intestine transplantation as life-saving therapy or when the burden on ongoing parenteral nutrition becomes too great to bear.

Parenteral nutrition: a life-saving intervention for 4 months in short bowel syndrome-a case report and review of the literature.

BACKGROUND: Short bowel syndrome (SBS) in adults is defined as having less than 180 to 200 cm of remaining small bowel. Many literature sources do not provide precise epidemiological data, and challenges in estimating the prevalence of SBS include its multifactorial etiology and varying definitions. The most common pathologies leading to SBS include Crohn disease, mesenteric ischemia, radiation enteritis, post-surgical adhesions, and post-operative complications. CASE PRESENTATION: This article presents a clinical case of a 76-year-old Lithuanian patient who underwent parenteral nutrition for four months due to SBS. Before the following diagnosis, the patient had undergone two surgeries. During the hospitalization, life-threatening conditions such as stercoral peritonitis, septic shock, and acute respiratory failure, were observed and treated. As a result of SBS, hypoproteinemia and hypoalbuminemia developed, leading to the prescription of full parenteral nutrition. After correcting the malnutrition, a third surgery was performed, resulting in the discontinuation of parenteral nutrition and the resumption of a regular diet. CONCLUSIONS: Parenteral nutrition is the sole effective method for preserving the lives of patients with a short segment of the intestine. While on parenteral nutrition, patients can be prepared for reconstructive surgery.

Glutathione Supplementation Prevents Neonatal Parenteral Nutrition-Induced Short- and Long-Term Epigenetic and Transcriptional Disruptions of Hepatic H2O2 Metabolism in Guinea Pigs.

The parenteral nutrition (PN) received by premature newborns is contaminated with peroxides that induce global DNA hypermethylation via oxidative stress. Exposure to peroxides could be an important factor in the induction of chronic diseases such as those observed in adults who were born preterm. As endogenous H2O2 is a major regulator of glucose-lipid metabolism, our hypothesis was that early exposure to PN induces permanent epigenetic changes in H2O2 metabolism. Three-day-old guinea pigs were fed orally (ON), PN or glutathione-enriched PN (PN+GSSG). GSSG promotes endogenous peroxide detoxification. After 4 days, half the animals were sacrificed, and the other half were fed ON until 16 weeks of age. The liver was harvested. DNA methylation and mRNA levels were determined for the SOD2, GPx1, GCLC, GSase, Nrf2 and Keap1 genes. PN induced GPx1 hypermethylation and decreased GPx1, GCLC and GSase mRNA. These findings were not observed in PN+GSSG. PN+GSSG induced Nrf2 hypomethylation and increased Nrf2 and SOD2 mRNA. These observations were independent of age. In conclusion, in neonatal guinea pigs, PN induces epigenetic changes, affecting the expression of H2O2 metabolism genes. These changes persist for at least 15 weeks after PN. This disruption may signify a permanent reduction in the capacity to detoxify peroxides.

Glucose turnover at whole-body and skeletal muscle level in response to parenteral nutrition in male patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Cirrhosis is associated with insulin resistance and impaired glucose tolerance, which may be caused by impairments at different tissue levels (liver, skeletal muscle, and/or beta cell). METHODS: Here, glucose kinetics at whole-body and skeletal muscle level in patients with cirrhosis (Child-Pugh A and B) were studied during parenteral nutrition using the isotope dilution technique and arteriovenous balance approach across the leg. As opposed to the euglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamp or glucose tolerance tests applied in previous studies, this approach provides a nutrient composition more similar to a normal meal while circumventing any possible portal-systemic shunting, impaired hepatic uptake and incretin effect. RESULTS: We confirmed the presence of hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance in our patient population. Endogenous glucose production was less suppressed in response to parenteral nutrition. However, glucose uptake in skeletal muscle was increased. CONCLUSION: Our results suggests that in our study participants with cirrhosis, the hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance is compensated for by increased insulin secretion and thus, increased glucose uptake in muscle. Hereby, glucose homeostasis is maintained.

[Comprehensive nutrition therapy in hospitals - Wishful thinking or reality? A survey-based cross-sectional study of the nutritional therapy in hospitals of Baden-Württemberg]. / Flächendeckende Ernährungstherapie ­ Wunsch oder Wirklichkeit? Eine fragebogengestützte Querschnittsstudie zur ernährungstherapeutischen Versorgung in baden-württembergischen Krankenhäusern.

INTRODUCTION: Malnutrition is widespread in German hospitals, has a negative impact on therapeutic success and quality of life, and it leads to increasing costs. An individualized nutritional support by nutritional professionals in accordance with current guidelines was shown to reduce mortality of malnourished inpatients. Ideally, nutritional support is conducted by an interdisciplinary nutrition support team. Current data on the nutritional therapy in German hospitals is missing. METHODS: In order to ascertain the current status of nutritional support in hospitals in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg, clinic managements of all hospitals in Baden-Württemberg received an online questionnaire. Affiliated hospitals, specialist hospitals, as well as hospitals with less than 50 beds were excluded from the analysis. RESULTS: The response rate was 84% (n = 94). The presence of a nutrition support team was reported by 34% of the hospitals. Twelve percent of the hospitals meet the structural characteristic of the OPS Code 8-98j Ernährungsmedizinische Komplexbehandlung, which means that their nutrition support team includes a physician. A validated nutritional risk screening is performed in 72% of the hospitals. Only 40% of the hospitals report that this is performed throughout every department. Nutrition support teams are more often concerned with malnutrition, enteral and parenteral nutrition as compared to nutritionists who are not organized in a team. Moreover, nutrition support teams have a wider range of tasks and more often a physician as a team member. Also, nutritional risk screenings are more often applied in hospitals with nutrition support teams. DISCUSSION: Compared with a nationwide survey from 2004, there are markedly more nutrition support teams available in hospitals in Baden-Württemberg. When compared internationally, however, the rate of nutrition support teams is still low. In addition, there is no comprehensive nutritional care available. High-quality nutritional support is more often found in hospitals with nutrition support teams. CONCLUSION: There is still a great potential of improving clinical nutritional care in hospitals in Baden-Württemberg. Moreover, an increase in nutrition support teams, also comprising medical members, should be achieved. Therefore, legal regulations and a sufficient refinancing are indispensable.

Outcomes of parenteral nutrition in patients with advanced cancer and malignant bowel obstruction.

BACKGROUND: Malignant bowel obstruction (MBO) affects 3% to 15% of all cancer patients. In patients with advanced cancer and inoperable MBO, the average survival varies between four to nine weeks. Parenteral nutrition (PN) may improve survival in specific patient populations with malignant bowel obstruction. AIMS: This retrospective, single-center cohort study aimed to review individual patient outcomes on PN in the setting of advanced cancer with a diagnosis of MBO and identify clinical and laboratory markers predictive of short- and long-term survival to further highlight patients that would benefit from PN in the setting of an inoperable MBO. RESULTS: In a retrospective analysis of 68 patients receiving PN for inoperable MBO, the median survival was 142 (IQR: 63.3-239.5) days. Patients experienced a median number of two hospital readmissions (range: 0-10) and spent a median of 29 days (range: 0-105) in the hospital after starting PN. Eighteen (26.5%) patients developed a catheter-related bloodstream infection (CRBSI). A diagnosis of appendiceal cancer was identified as a predictive marker of improved survival (HR: 0.53, 95% CI: 0.29-0.92, p = 0.023). CONCLUSIONS: The use of PN in the context of end-of-life cancer care is a practice that necessitates improvement. Recognizing the outcomes and patient experiences of PN utilization is essential to physicians and patients.

Fat malabsorption in short bowel syndrome: A review of pathophysiology and management.

Fat malabsorption is central to the pathophysiology of short bowel syndrome (SBS). It occurs in patients with insufficient intestinal surface area and/or function to maintain metabolic and growth demands. Rapid intestinal transit and impaired bile acid recycling further contribute to fat malabsorption. A significant portion of patients require parenteral nutrition (PN) for their survival but may develop sepsis and liver dysfunction as a result. Despite advancements in the treatment of SBS, fat malabsorption remains a chronic issue for this vulnerable patient population. Peer-reviewed literature was assessed on the topic of fat malabsorption in SBS. Current management of patients with SBS involves dietary considerations, PN management, antidiarrheals, glucagon-like peptide 2 agonists, and multidisciplinary teams. Clinical trials have focused on improving intestinal fat absorption by facilitating fat digestion with pancreatic enzymes. Targeting fat malabsorption in SBS is a potential pathway to improving lifestyle and reducing morbidity and mortality in this rare disease.

Nutritional Support in Critically Ill Trauma Patients.

Enteral nutrition should be initiated within 24 to 48 hours of injury, starting at a trophic rate and increasing to goal rate after hemodynamic stability is achieved. The modified Nutritional Risk in the Critically Ill score can help identify patients who will benefit most from aggressive and early nutritional intervention. In the first week of critical illness, the patient should receive only 70% to 80% of estimated calories and protein should be targeted to 1.5 to 2 g/kg. Parenteral nutrition can be provided safely without increased adverse events. Peri-operative (and intra-operative) feeding has been shown to be safe in selected patients.

[Parenteral nutrition : choosing the adequate vascular access]. / 5 minutes pour apprendre. Nutrition parentérale : choisir l'accès vasculaire adéquat.

Malnutrition is a common condition among hospitalized patients and has an important impact on morbidity and mortality. Despite enteral nutrition being the preferred option for patients requiring artificial alimentation, parenteral nutrition (PN) can be required. This article emphasizes the importance of choosing the adequate vascular access based on the chosen PN. Furthermore, it reviews indications, contraindications and complications of PN.

Time to full enteral feeds in hospitalised preterm and very low birth weight infants in Nigeria and Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Preterm (born < 37 weeks' gestation) and very low birthweight (VLBW; <1.5kg) infants are at the greatest risk of morbidity and mortality within the first 28 days of life. Establishing full enteral feeds is a vital aspect of their clinical care. Evidence predominantly from high income countries shows that early and rapid advancement of feeds is safe and reduces length of hospital stay and adverse health outcomes. However, there are limited data on feeding practices and factors that influence the attainment of full enteral feeds among these vulnerable infants in sub-Saharan Africa. AIM: To identify factors that influence the time to full enteral feeds, defined as tolerance of 120ml/kg/day, in hospitalised preterm and VLBW infants in neonatal units in two sub-Saharan African countries. METHODS: Demographic and clinical variables were collected for newborns admitted to 7 neonatal units in Nigeria and Kenya over 6-months. Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to identify factors independently associated with time to full enteral feeds. RESULTS: Of the 2280 newborn infants admitted, 484 were preterm and VLBW. Overall, 222/484 (45.8%) infants died with over half of the deaths (136/222; 61.7%) occurring before the first feed. The median (inter-quartile range) time to first feed was 46 (27, 72) hours of life and time to full enteral feeds (tFEF) was 8 (4.5,12) days with marked variation between neonatal units. Independent predictors of tFEF were time to first feed (unstandardised coefficient B 1.69; 95% CI 1.11 to 2.26; p value <0.001), gestational age (1.77; 0.72 to 2.81; <0.001), the occurrence of respiratory distress (-1.89; -3.50 to -0.79; <0.002) and necrotising enterocolitis (4.31; 1.00 to 7.62; <0.011). CONCLUSION: The use of standardised feeding guidelines may decrease variations in clinical practice, shorten tFEF and thereby improve preterm and VLBW outcomes.

Current fistula management.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Enterocutaneous fistulas (ECFs) pose a significant impact in the healthcare system, both financially and in resource utilization. Delivery of optimal care is complex and involves intensive wound care, complex nutritional delivery and multidisciplinary care teams for optimization. Recently, there have been pushes to modernize the traditional approach to ECF care to a new paradigm of protocol-based individualized delivery of care. RECENT FINDINGS: There is an increased trend towards pushing enteral nutrition for the management of ECF patients. Adjuncts, including improved fistuloclysis devices, supplements and absorptive aides have challenged the conventional dogma of ECF treatment. There has also been increased focus on surgical prehabilitation and the ability to improve patient outcomes. SUMMARY: ECF care is complex and requires a multidisciplinary approach focused on source control, nutritional optimization with focus on enteral nutrition, wound care and prehabilitation.

Association between energy delivery from parenteral nutrition and refeeding syndrome in hospitalized adults: A retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Patients receiving parenteral nutrition (PN) may develop refeeding syndrome (RFS). This study determined RFS prevalence in hospitalized adults on PN and evaluated whether higher energy delivered by PN on day 1 of PN initiation was associated with RFS development. METHODS: We reviewed the medical records of adult patients receiving PN at a Thai quaternary hospital from June 2019 to May 2022. RFS was defined based on the Nutrition Management Clinical Practice Recommendation by the Society of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition of Thailand. The association between PN energy delivery and RFS development was determined using a generalized estimating equation for multiple logistic regression analysis adjusted for NICE guideline risk factors. RESULTS: A total of 547 patients was included (mean age 59.8 ± 17.2 years, mean body mass index 20.7 ± 4.8 ). The prevalence of RFS was 45%. Factors associated with RFS included energy from PN on the first day of PN initiation (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.17; 95% CI 1.04-1.33; for every 5 kcal/kg/day increase), starvation >5 days prior to PN (aOR 1.54; 95% CI 1.04-2.26), concomitant diuretic use (aOR 1.81; 95% CI 1.25-2.64), low baseline potassium level (aOR 1.79; 95% CI 1.19-2.70), and individual compounding PN (aOR 1.61; 95% CI 1.04-2.51). CONCLUSION: RFS was common among hospitalized patients receiving PN. The amount of energy delivered on the first day of PN was independently associated with RFS, raising a concern regarding initiation of PN with higher energy.